TNF and pulmonary fibrosis: Lucarini L. et al. [12] found that inhibition of TGF-β/Smad pathway could significantly improve the static compliance of airway and lung, reduce lung tissue hardness, and downregulate the expression levels of inflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin 1β, iNOS, and COX-2, reduce α-SMA expression in BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice, and ameliorate the progression of signs and symptoms of pulmonary fibrosis.