TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Recent studies showed that the intraperitoneal injection of DC-derived exosomes pulsed by SEA was useful for attenuating the severity and repressing the progression of mouse inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with decreased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-17a, IFN-γ, IL-22, IL-12, and TNF-α and increased levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β.