TNF and colitis: Proinflammatory cytokines secreted by M1-macrophages including TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, Type I IFN, CXCL1-3, CXCL-5, and CXCL8-10 (5) have been associated to mucosal damage during DSS-induced colitis and also are known to prevent epithelial restitution (62, 63).