INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: There are two main types of diabetes: (i) type 1 diabetes (T1D), resulting from a total insulin deficiency (insulinopenia) subsequent of destruction of insulin-producing cells, which accounts for 10% of diabetes cases; and (ii) type 2 diabetes (T2D), the most common diabetes (90% of diabetes cases), characterized by two major cell dysfunctions: insulin resistance of peripheral organs such as liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscles, and partial insulinopenia from the β-cells.