TGFB1 and cancer: Nonetheless, excluding cancer-related pathways, signalling pathways that include TGF-β, PI3K-Akt, p53, FoxO, TNF, Toll-like receptor, HIF-1, WNT VEGF, oestrogen, progesterone and insulin mediation appear to play roles in the processes of follicular atresia and GC apoptosis.