TNF and malaria: In addition to producing type I IFNs, DCs produce a wide range of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-12, and IL-6, and chemokines, such as CXCL1, CXCL2, CCL2, CCL5, CXCL9, and CXCL10 in response to malaria parasites, and play crucial roles in malaria immunity and pathogenesis (34, 38, 108, 184–186).