Brefelamide at 1–100 μM dose-dependently suppresses cell growth in human astrocytoma 1321N1 cells in vitro through reduced glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) receptor expression, reduced GDNF secretion and reduced phosphorylation of Erk, Akt and c-Jun N-terminal kinases [27,107]. The gene discussed is GDNF; the disease is astrocytoma (excluding glioblastoma).