AVP and stage 5 chronic kidney disease: Recent epidemiological studies (n = 3000–4000 Scandinavian adults) have reported statistically significant associations between high plasma AVP (or its surrogates, including low daily TWI, low urine flow rate, high POSM, or copeptin) [69] and the incidence of type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, end-stage renal disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death [117,119,120,121,122].