IL13 and schistosomiasis: High levels of IL-4 and IL-13 (secreted primarily by type-2 immune cells such as Th2 cells to act toward the alternatively activation of macrophages into M2 and the activation of Hepatic stellate cells, Figure 1) were found to associate with periportal fibrosis progression during schistosomiasis in infected individuals from Brazil, Bahia, Philippines and Zambia (42, 46, 47, 49, 51).