TNF and Sepsis: In the early stage of sepsis, macrophages undergo M1 differentiation and promote host defense by eliminating invading pathogens or damaged tissues and releasing massive amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) (27).