In fallopian tube organ cultures, addition of exogenous IL-1α was shown by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and histological staining to cause damage similar to Ct infection, with IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) and p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-kinase blockade (downstream of IL-1 sensing) reducing epithelial damage (42). Here, IL1B is linked to infection.