TNF and infection: Compared to those of mock infection or VR2332c, JA142c and poly I:C induced significantly increased transcript levels of IFN-β and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, and TNF-α) at either two or all three time points assayed (12, 24 and 36 hpi) (Fig. 2a).