EDN1 and Cognitive impairment: In transgenic mice, the over-expression of ET-1 by CECs is a critical factor in astrogliosis and relates to the severity of cognitive impairment, (Zhang et al., 2013b); the potential mechanism is c-Jun expression activated by JNK and p38MAPK after ET-1 binding to the endothelin receptor type B (ETB) in astrocytes.