Basal levels of several immune features, including cytokines (e.g., IFN-α, IL-1β, IL-1RA, TNF, IFN-γ, IL-10), chemokines (e.g., MIP-1α, Rantes), and growth factors (e.g., G-CSF, GM-CSF, FGF), were found to be significantly lower in samples with evidence of malaria in pregnancy than in those that were unexposed. Here, CSF2 is linked to malaria.