TNF and schistosomiasis: Participants diagnosed with schistosomiasis based on CCA positivity had increased levels of IL-10 (median of 0.32 pg/ml vs. 0.19 pg/ml in CCA-negative controls, p = 0.038, ~ 1.70 fold difference), and tended to have elevated levels of TNF (median of 1.73 pg/ml vs. 1.42 pg/ml, p = 0.081, ~ 1.21 fold difference) compared to schistosoma-negative women (Fig. 2a & b).