TIRAP and infection: Upon PAMP recognition, TLRs recruit TIR-domain containing adaptor proteins such as MyD88, TRIF, TIRAP/MAL, or TRAM, which initiate signal transduction pathways that culminate in the activation of NF-κB, IRFs, or MAP kinases regulating the expression of cytokines, chemokines, or type I interferons (IFN), which finally protect the host against infections (10).