HMGB1 and ischemia: This role for HMGB-1 is supported by studies demonstrating that administration of monoclonal antibody to HMGB-1 protects against ischemia-induced BBB disruption in rats (Zhang et al., 2011), and in humans anti-HMGB1 monoclonal antibody improves the BBB integrity of patients with Alzheimers disease (Festoff et al., 2016).