CD274 and neoplasm: Various studies suggest that under certain stimuli, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) can acquire a pro-inflammatory signature characterised by the expression of immunomodulatory molecules (e.g., TGF-β44 or PD-L1/L245,46), as well as chemokines that promote recruitment of immunosuppressive myeloid cells (e.g., CXCL12, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4 and CCL5).9,47,48 In addition, CAF often form part of an intricate and thick arrangement of cells and stromal matrix surrounding tumour nests (also known as a desmoplastic reaction), which represents a physical barrier for cytotoxic immune cell infiltration.49