The effects of the PRSs for BPH/LUTS and prostate cancer on PSA levels are largely independent since, in a joint analysis the effect of both remained highly significant, i.e. 8.6% increase (P = 3.0 × 10−20) and 13.3% increase (P = 4.1 × 10−43), respectively (Table 2b). Here, KLK3 is linked to prostate carcinoma.