TNF and depressive symptom measurement: In fact several meta-analyses have revealed a consistent increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines – particularly IL-6, TNF-α, and CRP- in clinical depression (see Felger and Lotrich, 2013; Strawbridge et al., 2015; Haapakoski et al., 2016), and alterations in peripheral proteins related to inflammatory events have also been evaluated as possible biomarkers of depression (recently reviewed by Gururajan et al., 2016; Gadad et al., 2018).