EPO and Abnormality of metabolism/homeostasis: EPO functions in a hypoxia-sensitive manner meaning that stimuli such as hypoxia and stress (i.e., cellular changes such as hypoglycaemia, electrolyte imbalance, anaemia, infections and loss of endogenous anti-oxidants, etc.)can affect EPO and its receptor45–47, which can have pleiotropic effects in the modulation of apoptotic and immune activities50 as well as neurotrophic and neuroprotection effects46.