CXCR4 and hepatocellular carcinoma: Indeed, first experiments indicated that inhibiting the TGF-β pathway in HCC cell lines blocked migration and invasion of HCC cells by up-regulating E-cadherin and down-regulating CXCR4 (167, 188), as well as inhibiting the upregulated levels of CTGF induced by TGF-β, reducing the stromal component of the microtumoural environment and slowing the HCC growth in vivo (216).