TNF and infection: Severe IV infection induces many cytokines; IFNαβ, TNFα, IFNγ, C-X-C motif chemokine (CXCL) 10 (CXCL10), CXCL9, C-C motif ligand (CCL) 2 (CCL2), CCL4, CCL5 and interleukin (IL)−6 (IL-6), IL-2, IL-8, and IL-10 have all be observed to be upregulated during severe IV infection in humans (14, 15, 17, 92, 93).