TNF and astrocytoma (excluding glioblastoma): It has been reported that RAGE activation by D‐galactose increased interleukin (IL)‐1β, IL‐6, and tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) levels from astrocyte in mice.52 Aβ42‐induced reactive oxygen species production in primary astrocytes via RAGE activation.53 Elevated RAGE in astrocytoma cells activates NF‐κB and promotes the expression of TNF‐α.50 Since C3 is the critical component in immune system, which is up‐regulated under the inflammatory condition, we suggested that RAGE activation might potentially regulate C3 production.