The intracellular and extracellular functions of S100a8/a9 in the rat stomach and muscle were further supported by observation of neutrophil/leukocyte chemotaxis and migration, cytokine and chemokine production, upregulation of TLR and NF-κB signaling pathways (67), supporting an intensive inflammatory onset timed by 32 h post-infection in our study. This evidence concerns the gene NFKB1 and infection.