NPY and atrial fibrillation: Ischaemic damage to the insular cortex, in particular right-sided lesions, is associated with arrhythmic alterations (atrial fibrillation, atrioventricular block, ectopic beats, sinus bradycardia), inverted T wave, sudden cardiac death, altered diurnal blood pressure, and myocardial injury, as well as elevated plasma levels of brain natriuretic peptide, catecholamines, and sympathetic neuropeptide Y (NPY) (102).