TNF and multiple sclerosis: Additionally, LPSs induce the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, which can lead to neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), cerebral ischemia, multiple sclerosis, and stroke [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18].