Of interest, we found that the amount of IFN-γ–positive cells was widely distributed around interlobular bile ducts of the PBC mouse model (Additional file 1: Figure S7) and the expression of Gal-9 was elevated after UC-MSCT, further supporting the concept that the disease-specific microenvironment is crucial for the therapeutic effects of implanted MSCs. Here, IFNG is linked to primary biliary cholangitis.