PTGS2 and brain ischemia: Moreover, mice and rat models of traumatic brain injury (Yu et al., 2012) and cerebral ischemia (Kawabori and Yenari, 2015) result in neuro-inflammation, including increase in toll-like receptors (TLRs), microglial activation, and expression of pro-inflammatory enzymes (cyclo-oxygenase-2, COX-2) and cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα), in correlation with secondary cognitive defects comparable to TBI (Vincent et al., 2014) and vascular-related dementias (Kawabori and Yenari, 2015).