Even though the experimental models described above can provide an opportunity for us to investigate vectors encoding p14ARF and IFNβ under conditions that more closely resemble human cancer, it is reasonable to presume that future translational approaches will most likely be applied in combination with other treatment modalities, a practice well established in the clinic for chemo, radio and targeted therapies 120 and notably underscored by the combined use of CTLA-4 and PD-1 checkpoint blockers 121. Here, PDCD1 is linked to cancer.