TGFB1 and cancer: In addition to the essential roles in germ-layer specification and patterning during embryonic development, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling is also involved in human diseases including fibrosis, cardiovascular, cancer, reproductive or wound-healing disorders through control of cellular functions in proliferation, adhesion, invasion, differentiation, apoptosis, and cellular microenvironment [40, 41].