Besides, we measured the expression of genes closely related to autophagy including ATG1, 3–8, 12, and 13. The ATG7 mRNA levels were significantly upregulated in parallel with higher ATG7 protein in AF group (Supplemental Figure 1b), indicating ATG7 as an essential regulator for activating ATG8 (encoding for LC3) under AF condition. Here, ULK1 is linked to atrial fibrillation.