In this study, our finding that bacterial NleB, a virulence protein (effector) delivered by the T3SS in gut A/E pathogens such as EPEC or C. rodentium, modulates host glucose metabolism by GlcNAcylating arginine residues in HIF-1α [13] provides a causal link between pathogen infection and host glucose metabolism; furthermore, this finding could open new avenues for exploring the underlying causes by which pathogen infection affects host metabolism. The gene discussed is HIF1A; the disease is infection.