TNF and infection: Khare et al. [50] noted that treatment of human lung A549 epithelial cells with 100 or 30 nM of 1α,25(OH)2D prior to or post-H1N1 (influenza A virus) exposure significantly decreased the levels of infection-induced TNFα, IFNβ, and IFN-stimulated gene-15 (ISG15) and downregulated IL-8 and IL-6 RNA levels.