Furthermore, the activation of M1 macrophages by pro-inflammatory stimuli (TNF-α, IFN-γ, and bacterial LPS) inhibits trophoblast invasion that further contributes to the imbalance between Th1 and Th2 cytokines and the exaggerated inflammatory response observed in preeclampsia (Figure 2) (59, 127). Here, IFNG is linked to preeclampsia.