CCL2 and post-traumatic stress disorder: However, diverse factors and mechanisms may have had a direct impact on our β-amyloid findings; PTSD and AD are both highly associated with increased neuro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, and other neurotoxic mediators such as tryptase, histamine, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2, IL-8, ROS, CRH, and MMPs, any of which might contribute to neurodegeneration (Kempuraj et al., 2017) and β-amyloid accumulation.