TNF and bacterial infectious disease: As inflammation may continue optimally even after the stimuli (e.g., bacterial infection) has been treated, dual administration (cotreatment) of antibiotics and anti-inflammatory agents such as TNF biologics, CSAIDs – cytokine suppressive anti-inflammatory drugs (NF-κB and MAPK inhibitors) (126–128), PDE inhibitors, glucocorticoids, NSAIDs (15, 129, 130) should be explored.