ATF3 and infection: (i) During infection with S. flexneri, a Gram-negative bacterium that escapes to and replicates in the host cell cytoplasm, amino acid starvation persists up to 4 h after infection allowing not only the induction of autophagy but also GCN2- and eIF2α-dependent formation of stress granules in the cytosol as well as reprogramming of the transcriptional response orchestrated by ATF3 (8, 76).