TNF and infection: During gastrointestinal injury, males produce predominantly pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and TNF-α, as compared with females whose intestine produce anti-inflammatory factors such as IL-10 as well as protective factors of endothelial function such as a modest rise in nitric oxide (NO) levels [31]; in turn, the inflammatory response in males leads to perforation and cell necrosis at the site of infection [30].