Consistently with their respective functions, the cytokine portfolio is significantly diversified, with M1 macrophages producing mainly pro-inflammatory cytokines relevant to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, and MCP-1), as opposed to M2 macrophages releasing cytokines with anti-inflammatory properties, e.g., IL-10 and TGF-β (77). Here, TNF is linked to autoimmune disease.