TNF and peritonitis: While we know of no human studies that have examined exercise-related muscle damage and betalains, a study that injected betalains intraperitoneally showed a strong anti-inflammatory effect on carrageenan-induced paw edema and peritonitis in mice, as measured by reduced production of superoxide anion and the cytokines TNFα and IL-1β, as well as increased anti-inflammatory IL-10 levels (17).