TNF and infection: We showed that IL-23, TNF-α, and IL-6 were highly induced by all E. coli strains, with this phenomenon being reversed by Dex treatment from 2 to 24 h post-infection (Figure 8A) (IL-12 was not detectable in any of the conditions; data not shown), demonstrating that Dex is capable of reversing the M1 polarization of macrophages after infection.