Immune system and glia including astrocytes release IL-1β and HMGB1 which activate nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), an important regulator of pro-inflammatory gene expression which has been reported to be upregulated in MTS and TSC tissue (Crespel et al., 2002; Maldonado et al., 2003). Here, HMGB1 is linked to tuberous sclerosis.