These results suggest that the effect of estrogens on just the IFN signature cannot per se justify the higher incidence of lupus in females, while the effects of estrogens on IFN-dependent and IFN-independent pathways, in conjugation with additional hormonal and environmental factors, are likely necessary for the full development of lupus in genetically susceptible individuals. Here, IFNA1 is linked to systemic lupus erythematosus.