TNF and Hyperglycemia: In primary human monocyte-derived macrophages, hyperglycemia induces the production of the prototype M1 cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and IL-6, but inhibits the M2 cytokines IL-1Ra and C-C motif chemokine ligand 18 (CCL18) during macrophage differentiation [12].