Enrichment analysis of signaling pathways mediated by the DEGs upregulated in DMBA-induced dysplasia or cancer group showed that numerous pathways were activated in the initial and late phases of carcinogenesis, including the potentially oncogenic hypoxia inducible factor 1α subunit (HIF-1α), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathways, which have been reported to have pivotal roles in cancer initiation and progression (Fig. 2a, b). Here, HIF1A is linked to cancer.