VEGFA and brain edema: VEGF has both beneficial and detrimental effects in the post-stroke brain, as reviewed by Greenberg and Jin.97 In brief, VEGF increases neuroprotection, angiogenesis and neurogenesis after focal cerebral ischaemia98 but as a potent inducer of vascular permeability, can also increase blood–brain barrier (BBB) leakage leading to cerebral oedema.99,100 These dual actions appear to be reflected in the literature on the involvement of the MSC secretome in stroke repair.