While literature indicates dual roles of TGF-β in cancer progression, TGF-β generally elicits tumor-suppressive effects during the early stages of carcinogenesis by inducing cell cycle regulatory proteins, e.g., p21WAF1, p14ARF, p16INK4A, and p57KIP, leading to cellular senescence or apoptosis26–28. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and cancer.