TGFB1 and neoplasm: While literature indicates dual roles of TGF-β in cancer progression, TGF-β generally elicits tumor-suppressive effects during the early stages of carcinogenesis by inducing cell cycle regulatory proteins, e.g., p21WAF1, p14ARF, p16INK4A, and p57KIP, leading to cellular senescence or apoptosis26–28.