TLR4 and epilepsy: An IL-1β-dependent enhancement of excitatory neurotransmission has also been reported in epilepsy (Iori et al., 2013) where danger signals such as High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) were proposed to mediate the IL-1β-dependent increase in neuronal excitability, through an Src kinase-mediated phosphorylation of the NR2B subunit of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (Viviani et al., 2003; Maroso et al., 2010, 2011).