TNF and infection: On the other hand, we observed that in all C57BL/6 mice, levels of several cytokines and serum chemokines increased at this infection time point (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, CCL-5, CCL-11, and CXCL-9, in addition to IL-2, IL-10, IL-17 and CCL-3, depending on the strain of T. cruzi), indicating a lack of immune response control similar to that occurring in the chronic phase (Perez et al., 2011; Sousa et al., 2014).